a chain of the logically connected figurative components. Sometimes such

components of the extended metaphors pass through the whole clause. The

below-mentioned example is taken from clause of the American observer James

Reston.

The latest official explanation of the President's Indochina policy is

that " he is backing out of the saloon with both guns firing ", but there

is a catch to this.

He insists that the guys in the white hats keep control of the saloon

before he leaves town. He wants a non-communist bartender, and a non-

communist sheriff, and a secure non-communist town before he rides away

into the sunset of November, 1972.

In the final paragraph of the article the elements of one metaphor are

partially repeated: but all this is a little more complicated than "

backing out of the saloon ".

The images of this extended metaphor are taken from so-called "western"

— of film about cowboys in "wild" West. In this case all elements of the

developed(unwrapped) metaphor, perhaps, can be kept in translation.

Согласно последнему официальному объяснению политики президента в

отношении Индокитая, «он хочет выбраться из бара, пятясь к двери и

отстреливаясь из двух пистолетов». Но за этим кроется что-то еще.

Он хочет, чтобы парни в белых шапках следили за порядком в баре до тех

пор, пока он не уедет из города. Он хочет, чтобы бармен не был коммунистом

и чтобы шериф не был коммунистом и чтобы город заведомо не был в руках

коммунистов. И только тогда он поскачет навстречу ноябрьским сумеркам 1972

года.

And at the end of clause — «но все это несколько сложнее, чем пятясь

к двери, выбраться из бара».

However there are cases, when the preservation of all figurative

components of the developed(unwrapped) metaphor is impossible, as well as

preservation of both components of synonymic pair, for it would break the

stylistic norms of Russian.

Being purely linguistic and stylistic device – metonymy is used more

and more in political literature, perhaps, even more than metaphor.

Metonymy translation presents one of numerous problems for the use of

metonymy significantly differs in English and Russian languages. Due to

this fact the translator is often forced to go back to the primary meaning

of a word, that is to the meaning that was firstly created by metonymy.

It is a widespread case of metonymy usage – substitution of concrete

notion by an abstract one, which can not always be preserved.

"It (the flood) has hurl us a great deal, " the Pakistan Prime Minister

told correspondents last week as he toured the destruction in the flooded

provinces. ("Newsweek")

«Наводнение нанесло нам огромный ущерб»,—сказал корреспондентам премьер-

министр Пакистана, на прошлой неделе во время поездки по пострадавшим от

наводнения районам.

Concerning the translation of comparison as a stylistic device, the

difficulties arise only if the words of English and Russian languages are

various in the semantic structure. We have already considered in the

chapter of lexical transformations the question of translation of such

terms and now we would like to give the example of stylistic comparison.

Instant history, like instant coffee, can sometimes be remarkably

palatable. At least it is in this memoir by a former White House aide who

sees L.B.J. as " an extraordinarily gifted President who was the wrong man

from the wrong place at the wrong time under the wrong circumstances ".

Современная история, как и такой современный продукт, как растворимый

кофе, иногда может быть необыкновенно приятна. По крайней мере, такой ее

преподносит в своих мемуарах бывший помощник президента Джонсона, считающий

его «исключительно одаренным президентом, который был неподходящим

человеком, из неподходящего места (штат Техас), в неподходящее время, при

неподходящих обстоятельствах».

In order to preserve this playing comparison, the interpreters were

forced to apply additional words.

We discussed above the importance of articles in translation and now

we should mention once again that they can serve in stylistic purposes.

An expressiveness gets the definite article, before a indefinite

pronoun one.

... this is the one way we can achieve success in elections.

...это единственный способ достигнуть победы на выборах.

The given synonyms compensate render the stress contained the original

text.

There is another kind of stylistic transformation – actualization –

which involves transition of something simple into something unusual,

strange. It reveals potential expressiveness put in the lexical morphologic

and syntactic means of a language.

Actualization of the passive form often occurs while translating

political literature but it is not as colored as in the translations of

fiction.

The General Assembly was gaveled to order by its outgoing President.

Уходящий со своего поста председатель Генеральной Ассамблее навел

порядок в зале, энергично стуча молотком.

The expressiveness and emphasis created by the passive form of the verb

that had been formed as a result of conversion are compensated by lexical

means. The compressed nature of sentence was lost for the verb to gavel has

two semantic components one of action and an instrument that were to be

rendered in translation.

Now from everything that has been discussed above we can infer that

the usage of some of stylistic devices in English is peculiar – and bears

specific national character, therefore their direct translation in many

instances is impossible. Moreover, the impression left by some of stylistic

device maybe different in both languages, compare soft panic and тихая

паника. It can be explained not only by national features of stylistic

means and devices of some of the language but by the their multi

functioning character also – that do not always coincide – as it was shown

on the matter of alliteration. This is the main criteria causing the

necessity of stylistic transformations that involve substitution and

changes. Therefore we should warn the future translators and interpreters

that it is not important to classify the device itself but the point is to

be able to realize their ongoing effect and to identify the purpose of

their application in the translation they are working on.

§ IV. The difficulty of translation of set phrases and idioms

As far as idioms and phraseological units are concerned in translation,

the first difficulty that a translator comes across is being able to

recognize that s/he is dealing with an idiomatic expression. This is not

always so obvious. There are various types of idioms, some more easily

recognizable than others. Those which are easily recognizable include

expressions which violate truth conditions, such as It's raining cats and

dogs, throw caution to the winds, storm in a tea cup, jump down someone's

throat, and food for thought. They also include expressions which seem ill-

formed because they do not follow the grammatical rules of the language,

for example trip the light fantastic, blow someone to kingdom come, put

paid to, the powers that be, by and large, and the world and his friend.

Expressions which start with like (simile-like structures) also tend to

suggest that they should not be interpreted literally. These include idioms

such as like a bat out of hell and like water off a duck's back. Generally

speaking, the more difficult an expression is to understand and the less

sense it makes in a given context, the more likely a translator will

recognize it as an idiom. Because they do not make sense if interpreted

literally, the highlighted expressions in the following text are easy to

recognize as idioms (assuming one is not already familiar with them):

This can only be done, I believe, by a full and frank airing of the

issues. I urge you all to speak your minds and not to pull any punches.

Provided a translator has access to good reference works and

monolingual dictionaries of idioms, or, better still, is able to consult

native speakers of the language, opaque idioms which do not make sense for

one reason or another can actually be a blessing in disguise. The very fact

that s/he cannot make sense of an expression in a particular context will

alert the translator to the presence of an idiom of some sort.

There are two cases in which an idiom can be easily misinterpreted if

one is not already familiar with it:

(a) Some idioms are 'misleading'; they seem transparent because they

offer a reasonable literal interpretation and their idiomatic meanings are

not necessarily signalled in the surrounding text. A large number of idioms

in English, and probably all languages, have both a literal and an

idiomatic meaning, for example go out with ('have a romantic or sexual

relationship with someone') and take someone for a ride ('deceive or cheat

someone in some way'). Such idioms lend themselves easily to manipulation

by speakers and writers who will sometimes play on both their literal and

idiomatic meanings. In this case, a translator who is not familiar with the

idiom in question may easily accept the literal interpretation and miss the

play on idiom.

(b) An idiom in the source language may have a very close counter

part in the target language which looks similar on the surface but has

a totally or partially different meaning. For example, the idiomatic

question Has the cat had/got your tongue? is used in English to urge

someone to answer a question or contribute to a conversation, particularly

when their failure to do so becomes annoying.

Apart from being alert to the way speakers and writers manipulate

certain features of idioms and to the possible confusion which could arise

from similarities in form between source and target expressions, a

translator must also consider the collocational environment which surrounds

any expression whose meaning is not readily accessible. Idiomatic and fixed

expressions have individual collocational patterns. They form collocations

with other items in the text as single units and enter into lexical sets

which are different from those of their individual words. Take, for

instance, the idiom to have cold feet. Cold as a separate item may

collocate with words like weather, winter, feel, or country. Feet on its

own will perhaps collocate with socks, chilblain, smelly, etc. However,

having cold feet, in its idiomatic use, has nothing necessarily to do with

winter, feet, or chilblains and will therefore generally be used with a

different set of collocates.

The ability to distinguish senses by collocation is an invaluable

asset to a translator working from a foreign language. It is often subsumed

under the general umbrella of 'relying on the context to disambiguate

meanings', which, among other things, means using our knowledge of

collocational patterns to decode the meaning of a word or a stretch of

language. Using our knowledge of collocational patterns may not always tell

us what an idiom means but it could easily help us in many cases to

recognize an idiom, particularly one which has a literal as well as a non-

literal meaning.

Once an idiom or fixed expression has been recognized and interpreted

correctly, the next step is to decide how to translate it into the target

language. The difficulties involved in translating an idiom are totally

different from those involved in interpreting it. Here, the question is not

whether a given idiom is transparent, opaque, or misleading. An opaque

expression may be easier to translate than a transparent one. The main

difficulties involved in translating idioms and fixed expressions may be

summarized as follows:

(a) An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target

language. The way a language chooses to express, or not express, various

meanings cannot be predicted and only occasionally matches the way another

language chooses to express the same meanings. One language may express a

given meaning by means of a single word, another may express it by means of

a transparent fixed expression, a third may express it by means of an

idiom, and so on. It is therefore unrealistic to expect to find equivalent

idioms and expressions in the target language as a matter of course.

Like single words, idioms and fixed expressions may be culture-

specific. Formulae such as Merry Christmas and say when which relate to

specific social or religious occasions provide good examples.

Basnett-McGuire (1980: 21) explains that the expression say when 'is

... directly linked to English social behavioral patterns' and suggests

that 'the translator putting the phrase into Russian has to contend with

the problem of the non-existence of a similar convention in either

culture'. Less problematic, but to some extent also culture-specific, are

the sort of fixed formulae that are used in formal correspondence, such as

Yours faithfully and Yours sincerely in English. These, for instance, have

no equivalents in Arabic formal correspondence. The same mismatch occurs in

relation to French and several other languages but in Russian we have

similar expression Ваш верный!

Idioms and fixed expressions which contain culture-specific items are

not necessarily untranslatable. It is not the specific items an expression

contains but rather the meaning it conveys and its association with culture-

specific contexts which can make it untranslatable or difficult to

translate. For example, the English expression to carry coals to Newcastle,

though culture-specific in the sense that it contains a reference to

Newcastle coal and uses it as a measure of abundance, is nevertheless

closely paralleled in Russian by в Тулу со своим самоваром. Both

expressions convey the same meaning, namely: to supply something to someone

who already has plenty of it.

An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar counterpart in the target

language, but its context of use may be different; the two expressions may

have different connotations, for instance, or they may not be pragmatically

transferable. To sing a different tune is an English idiom which means to

say or do something that signals a change in opinion because it contradicts

what one has said or done before. To go to the dogs ('to lose one's good

qualities') has a similar counterpart in German, but whereas the English

idiom can be used in connection with a person or a place, its German

counterpart can only be used in connection with a person and often means to

die or perish.

c) An idiom may be used in the source text in both its literal and

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