overestimate the general and scientific meaning of terms since the concrete

knowledge demands definite expression and a term does not only fix the

concept by its notion (name) but specifies it diverging it from adjacent

components.

For better functioning, terms must express systematization of notions,

express their essence or at least be semantically neutral and at the same

time be unambiguous and precise.

The phenomenon of a separate field of science and the terms that fix

them should be systemized that offers gender availability around which

group notions are formed. Thus an English term representative which

presents a group notion and forms a group of notions that belong to this

group: representative forum (представительный форум), business world

representative (представитель делового мира), representative to the talks

(представитель на переговорах), representative to the public (представитель

общественности), representative of political circles (представитель

политических кругов), representative to NATO (представитель НАТО),

representative of various strata or the population (представитель различных

слоёв населения).

The capability of a term to express a systematic state of notions and

easily merge with new phrases that represent new group notions that

consequently appear along with the development of a definite field of

science or knowledge maybe called its systematic capability.

The systematic capability of notions helps us to clarify the relation

of notions, raise their semantic definiteness and ease their understanding

and remembering.

In terms, formed on the base of mother tongue we may differ direct

meaning and terminological meaning.

The direct meaning of a term is formed through the elements of the

language used for their formation; the terminological meaning defines the

concept of notion expressed by the term.

The terms, direct and terminological meaning of which correspond to

each other, correctly orientate and underline the so-called their

interrelation. These terms are able to express the essence of notions.

The terms, whose direct and terminological meaning does not correspond

to each other belong to semantically neutral group of terms.

And at last, the terms whose direct and terminological meaning

contradict each other, should be admitted as completely unsatisfactory

because they distort the genuine relations among the notions, disorientate

the hearer and do not possess any semantic definiteness.

Unambiguousness of a term also influences its clear semantic features

but since we do not have any researches in this field this concept cannot

always be applied. Therefore, up to 10% of English and American political

terms do not possess even a relative semantic definiteness, i.e.

definiteness in some political concerns. This situation may be explained by

the fact that the terms according to their nature are firstly simple words,

and consequently, they develop according to general laws of linguistics.

The result of this is the appearance terminological homonyms that hinder

the normal functioning of political terms in a language.

The definiteness of a term requires preciseness of an expressed idea.

It also raises the semantic definiteness of the term averting its misusage

according to it form.

Not all the terms, of course, possess the above-mentioned qualities,

but the translator/interpreter of political material should take them into

consideration while forming new terms and solving the question of

preference to one of the available term-synonyms.

The correct translation of political literature is a laborious work

despite the terms’ considerable possession of definite semantic clearness

and independence in usage.

While speaking of difficulties of translation, we imply as a matter of

the first importance, the translation general political literature, which

either do not yet have any equivalents in the translating language or have

several similar notion for the term in question or at least have one

equivalent but of doubtful adequacy. There are lots of word phrases and

idiom and terms of this kind and their number is growing with development

of technology and interrelation of people and especially with the

development of Political sciences.

To achieve a correct translation we can recommend to group the

political literature and the used in them according to their field of

application and some principles of translation of each group. All the

political terms and idioms existing in politics can be divided into three

groups:

1. terms – defining the notions of a foreign reality but identical

to the reality of the Russian language march - марш

2. terms – defining the notions of a foreign reality absent in the

Russian one but possessing generally accepted term-equivalents

National Guard – Национальная Гвардия, Territorial Army –

Территориальная Армия.

3. terms – defining the notions of a foreign reality that are not

available in the Russian language and not having generally

accepted term-equivalents: alert hanger – ангар вылета по

тревоге.

The adequacy of translation of the first group is achieved by the use

of terms implementing corresponding notions in Russian language.

At the same time, it is very important for the notion expressed by the

notion of another language to correspond in meaning rendered in Russian

language only by its main, essential attributes. The translation of an

English term poll into Russian опросы населения (голосование) is possible

only for the correspondence of their principal meaning though the

organization and methods of polling are quite different in both countries.

An adequate translation of the second group is comprised in the

selection of generally accepted Russian terminological equivalents.

Even terms, not fully meeting the above mentioned requirements due to

the terminological meaning fixed for it through the linguistic activity

will adequately fit into these rules.

An adequate translation of the words of the third group may be achieved

by means of creation of a new terms, which will have to completely merge

into the existing system of political terms underlying the systematization

of available notions, reflect the essence of the notion it expresses or at

least not to contradict it and possess an unambiguousness within its field

of application.

Thus, we have considered all the general principals in achieving and

adequate translation including translation of political literature and the

essential features of translation of political terms.

Chapter II

§ I. Grammatical difficulties of translation

The translation process of political literature from one language into

another is inevitable without necessary grammatical transformations (change

of structure). It gets great importance while making translation to add or

omit some words since the structures of languages are quite different.

Grammatical transformations are characterized by various principles –

grammatical, and lexical as well, though the principal role is given to

grammatical ones. Very often these grammatical changes are mixed so that

they have lexical-grammatical character.

The vigil of the British Embassy, supported last week by many prominent

people and still continuing, the marches last Saturday, the resolutions or

organizations have done something to show that Blair doesn’t speak for

Britain.

Круглосуточная демонстрация у здания британского консульства,

получившая на прошлой недели поддержку многих видных деятелей, всё ещё

продолжается. Эта демонстрация и состоявшиеся в субботу поход, а также

предпринятые различными организациями резолюции, явно свидетельствуют о

том, что Блэр отнюдь не говорит от имени всего английского народа.

While translating this article we have made the following changes.

The sentence was divided into two parts. We often do that when

translating short newspaper articles (news in brief) and the first lines of

the articles of informative character (leads). Practically, we are forced

to do that because the first lines usually contain main information given

in the paragraph. These sentences containing various information are not

characteristic to the style of Russian writing. The division of the

sentence made us repeat the word демонстрация.

The word vigil – бдение acquired here quite another political meaning

круглосуточная демонстрация. Since ночное бодрствование is one of the

semantic components of the word vigil the term круглосуточная демонстрация

fully renders the sense of the given word. Besides, we have to mention that

one of the words was translated like word expression получившая поддержку.

We have also added additional words like у здания (посольства),

состоявшиеся (в субботу походы), а также принятые различными (организациями

резолюции). The word last in the last Saturday was omitted because it would

make the translation more difficult, but we can conceive it by the

contextual meaning of the sentence.

The strengthening function of the phrase have done something to show

was rendered by the adverb явно свидетельствуют.

And the English cliche to speak for was translated by the Russian one

говорить от имени. And at last I should say that I metonymically translated

the word Britain into весь английские народ.

Thus, while translating this sentence we have made use of grammatical

transformations and lexical as well.

As you know, English has an analytical character and therefore the

relation between words is mostly expressed by word-order, that’s by

syntactic means, and morphological means play the secondary role. The

priority of the role of syntactical changes appears in many cases but they

do not always have similar conformities in Russian language which makes the

translator make use of various transformations while translating a piece of

political literature. Here we can point to well-known features of the

location of syntactic items in the English, e.i. the combination of

logically incompatible homogeneous part of the sentence, the essential use

of introductory sentences, the break of logical chain of the sentence, and

especially while expressing the noun and the attribute of the sentences.

The syntactic structure of a language imposes restrictions on the way

messages may be organized in that language. The order in which functional

elements such as subject, predicator, and object may occur is more fixed in

some languages than in others. Languages vary in the extent to which they

rely on word order to signal the relationship between elements in the

clause. Compared to languages such as German, Russian, Finnish, Arabic, and

Eskimo, word order in English is relatively fixed. The meaning of a

sentence in English, and in languages with similarly fixed word order such

as Chinese, often depends entirely on the order in which the elements are

placed. (cf. The man ate the fish and The fish ate the man).

The structural features of English language require structural

completeness of the sentence. One can not omit a word without supplying

another one instead. This criterion is governed by stylistic preference of

the language to prevent word and make the sentence more emphatic. Even if

the repetition is frequent in English its use in most cases is logically

required and stylistically proved to be necessary. Otherwise, repetition is

accepted as unnecessary component of the sentence or one of the stylistic

shortcomings of the translation. The demand of syntactical completeness of

the sentences and others stylistic criteria explain here the wide usage of

structure filling words (слова заместители). The structure filling words

include pronouns (one, ones, this, that, these, those) and verbs (to do, to

be, to have, shall, should, will, would, can, could, might, may, must,

ought, need, dare).

Its quite evident that the structure filling words do not have

denotative meaning, they are absolutely contextual. They should be related

to conforming nouns and the verb form the fill and only afterwards they

acquire lexical completeness. The verb-filling words are usually divided

into two parts: fully filling and partially filling ones. To the first

group belong the verb to do in the Present Indefinite which act in the role

of fully filling word. It can replace the verbs of function. To the second

group belong all other structure filling words. They act like a part of the

whole just like the representative of compound verb form.

While translating the structure filling words we have to use words with

complete meaning (sometimes pronouns) or make use of some other kinds of

functional filling.

The new British Government will face many problems, both acute and

chronic: an acute one will be Northern Ireland, acute among chronic ones

will be inflation and rising prices.

Новое британское правительство столкнётся со многими проблемами как

неотложного, так и затяжного характера. К неотложным проблемам относится

положение в Северной Ирландии, а к проблемам, носящим затяжной характер, -

инфляция и рост цен.

While translating this piece we had to decipher the structure filling

words and render their meaning by means of conforming nouns.

When comparing the grammatical categories and forms of English and

Russian languages we identify the following differences: a) the absence of

the categories in one of the comparing languages, b) partial correspondence

and c) complete correspondence. The necessity of grammatical

transformations arise only on two first cases. When comparing the English

with Russian we should mention that Russian does not have the notions like

article and gerund and absolute nominative constructions as well. Partial

conformity and unconformity in meaning and usage of corresponding forms and

constructions also demands grammatical transformations. We can refer to

this case the partial unconformity of the category of number, partial

unconformity in the forms of passive constructions, partial unconformity of

the form of infinitive and gerund and some other differences in expressing

the modality of the clause and so on.

First of all we should consider the article for article both definite

and indefinite which despite its abstract meaning very frequently demands

semantic expression in translation. As we know both these articles

originated from pronouns; the definite one originated from index pronoun

and the indefinite one from indefinite pronoun, which refers to number one.

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