is pronounced as / /, e.g. dance, answer, class, fast.

The pronunciation of some consonants is also changed :

a) after a vowel /r/ is pronounced ,e.g. /ka:r/ , /ha:rt/.

b)There appears an intrusive /r/ in the combinations where after the

final vowel / / there is a vowel at the beginning of the next word, e.g.

the idea of, Asia and Europe/ on the analogy with word combinations there

is, there are/.

c) /p/ and /t/ are glotalized in the middle of the word,e.g. matter is

pronounced as /`m ? /, happy as /`h ? i/.

d) /s/ is used instead of /sh/ before /i/ in the structure of suffixes,

e.g. social /`sousi l/, negotiate / ni`gousi,eit/;

e) /l/ is vocalized at the end of the word, e.g. full/ ful/( close to

/v/ in sound).

f) /sh/ is voiced in the intervocal position in some geographical names,

e.g . «Asia», «Persia»;

g) combinations of sounds /dj/, /tj/ , /sj/ in such words as duke, tube,

issue have two variants of pronunciation: /d3u:k/ and /dju:k/, /chu:b/ and

/tju:b/, /`ishu:/ and /`isju:/;

g) pronunciation approaching spelling is being developed, e.g. often

/`oftn/, forehead / fo:`hed/ etc;

h) /t/ and/d/ at the end of words are not pronounced, e.g. «half past

five’ /`ha:f `pa:s`faiv/, «old man» /`oul `m n/.

LEXICOGRAPHY

The theory and practice of compiling dictionaries is called

lexicography. The history of compiling dictionaries for English comes as

far back as the Old English period, where we can find glosses of religious

books / interlinear translations from Latin into English/. Regular

bilingual dictionaries began to appear in

the 15-th century /Anglo-Latin, Anglo-French , Anglo-German/.

The first unilingual dictionary explaining difficult words appeared in

1604, the author was Robert Cawdry, a schoolmaster. He compiled his

dictionary for schoolchildren. In 1721 an English scientist and writer

Nathan Bailey published the first etymological dictionary which explained

the origin of English words. It was the first scientific dictionary, it was

compiled for philologists.

In 1775 an English scientist compiled a famous explanatory dictionary.

Its author was Samuel Johnson. Every word in his dictionary was illustrated

by examples from English literature, the meanings of words were clear from

the contexts in which they were used.. The dictionary was a great success

and it influenced the development of lexicography in all countries. The

dictionary influenced normalization of the English vocabulary. But at

the same time it helped to preserve the English spelling in its

conservative form.

In 1858 one of the members of the English philological society Dr.

Trench raised the question of compiling a dictionary including all the

words existing in the language. The

philological society adopted the decision to compile the dictionary

and the work started. More than a thousand people took part in collecting

examples, and 26 years later in 1884 the first volume was published. It

contained words beginning with «A» and «B». The last volume was published

in 1928 that is 70 years after the decision to compile it was adopted. The

dictionary was called NED and contained 12 volumes.

In 1933 the dictionary was republished under the title «The Oxford

English Dictionary», because the work on the dictionary was conducted in

Oxford. This dictionary contained 13 volumes. As the dictionary was very

large and terribly expensive scientists continued their work and compiled

shorter editions of the dictionary: «A Shorter Oxford Dictionary»

consisting of two volumes. It had the same number of entries, but far less

examples from literature. They also compiled «A Concise Oxford Dictionary»

consisting of one volume and including only modern words and no examples

from literature.

The American lexicography began to develop much later, at the end of the

18-th century. The most famous American English dictionary was compiled by

Noah Webster. He was an active stateman and public man and he published his

first dictionary in 1806. He went on with his work on the dictionary and in

1828 he published a two-volume dictionary. He tried to simplify the English

spelling and transcription. He introduced the alphabetical system of

transcription where he used letters and combinations of letters instead of

transcription signs. He denoted vowels in closed syllables by the

corresponding vowels, e.g. / a/, /e/, / i/, / o/, /u/. He denoted vowels

in the open syllable by the same letters, but with a dash above them,e.g.

/ a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/. He denoted vowels in the position before /r/ as

the same letters with two dots above them, e.g. / a/, /o/ and by the l

etter «e» with two dots above it for the combinations «er», «ir», «ur»

because they are pronounced identically. The same tendency is preserved

for other sounds : /u:/ is denoted by /oo/, /y/ is used for the sound /j/

etc.

Classification of dictionaries

All dictionaries are divided into linguistic and encyclopedic

dictionaries. Encyclopedic dictionaries describe different objects,

phenomena, people and give some data about them. Linguistic dictionaries

describe vocabulary units, their semantic structure, their origin, their

usage. Words are usually given in the alphabetical order.

Linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and specialized . To

general dictionries two most widely used dictionaries belong: explanatory

and translation dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries include

dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, collocations, word-frequency,

neologisms, slang, pronouncing, etymological, phraseological and others.

All types of dictionaries can be unilingual ( excepting translation ones)

if the explanation is given in the same language, bilingual if the

explanation is given in another language and also they can be polilingual.

There are a lot of explanatory dictionaries (NED, SOD, COD, NID, N.G.

Wyld’s «Universal Dictionary» and others). In explanatory dictionaries the

entry consists of the spelling, transcription, grammatical forms, meanings,

examples, phraseology. Pronunciation is given either by means of the

International Transcription System or in British Phonetic Notation which is

different in each large dictionary, e.g. /o:/ can be indicated as / aw/,

/or/, /oh/, /o/. etc.

Translation dictionaries give words and their equivalents in the other

language. There are English-Russian dictionaries by I.R. Galperin, by

Y.Apresyan and others. Among general dictionaries we can also mention

Learner’s dictionaries. They began to appear in the second half of the 20-

th century. The most famous is «The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary» by A.S.

Hornby. It is a unilingual dictionary based on COD, for advanced foreign

learners and language teachers. It gives data about grammatical and lexical

valency of words. Specialized dictionaries of synonyms are also widely

used, one of them is «A Dictionary of English Synonyms and Synonymous

Expressions» by R.Soule. Another famous one is «Webster’s Dictionary of

Synonyms». These are unilingual dictionaries. The best known bilingual

dictionary of synonyms is «English Synonyms» compiled by Y. Apresyan.

In 1981 «The Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English» was compiled, where

words are given in 14 semantic groups of everyday nature. Each word is

defined in detail, its usage is explained and illustrated, synonyms,

antonyms are presented also. It describes 15000 items, and can be referred

to dictionaries of synonyms and to explanatory dictionaries.

Phraseological dictionaries describe idioms and colloquial phrases,

proverbs. Some of them have examples from literature. Some lexicographers

include not only word-groups but also anomalies among words. In «The Oxford

Dicionary of English Proverbs» each proverb is illustrated by a lot of

examples, there are stylistic references as well. The dictionary by

Vizetelli gives definitions and illustrations, but different meanings of

polisemantic units are not given. The most famous bilingual dictionary of

phraseology was compiled by A.V. Koonin. It is one of the best

phraseological dictionaries.

Etymological dictionaries trace present-day words to the oldest forms of

these words and forms of these words in other languages. One of the best

etymological dictionaries was compiled by W. Skeat.

Pronouncing dictionaries record only pronunciation. The most famous is D.

Jones’ s «Pronouncing Dictionary».

Dictionaries of neologisms are : a four-volume «Supplement to NED» by

Burchfield, «The Longman Register of New Words»/1990/, «Bloomsury

Dictionary of New Words» /1996/.

SEMINARS

Seminar 1

Language units.

The smallest language unit.

The function of a root morpheme.

The main function of suffixes.

The secondary function of suffixes.

The main function of prefixes.

The secondary function of prefixes.

Splinters and their formation in English.

The difference between affixes and splinters.

Structural types of words in English.

The stem of a word and the difference beween a simple word, a stem and a

root.

The difference between a block compound and a nominal benomial.

The difference between a word and a phraseological unit.

The similarity between a word and a phraseological unit.

Analyze the following lexical units according to their structure. Point

out the function of morphemes. Speak about bound morphemes and free

morphemes. Point out allomorphs in analyzed words:

accompany unsystematic forget-me-not

computerise expressionless reservation

de-restrict superprivileged moisture

lengthen clannish pleasure

beautify workaholic reconstruction

beflower inwardly counterculture

specialise moneywise three-cornered

round table Green Berets to sandwich in

Seminar 2.

Affixation.

Classification of suffixes according to the part of speech they form.

Classification of suffixes according to the stem they are added to.

Classification of suffixes according to their meaning.

Classification of suffixes according to their productivity.

Classification of suffixes according to their origin.

Classification of prefixes according to their meaning.

Classification of prefixes according to their origin.

Classification of prefixes according to their productivity.

Analyze the following derived words, point out suffixes and prefixes and

classify them from different points of view:

to embed nourishment unsystematic

to encourage inwardly to accompany

translatorese dispensable clannishness

to de-restrict workaholic jet-wise

reconstruction to overreach thouroughly

afterthought foundation childishness

transgressor to re-write completenik

gangsterdom pleasure concentration

refusenik counter-culture brinkmanship

allusion self-criticism to

computerise

slimster reservation

translation

Seminar 3

Compound words.

Characteristic features of compound words in different languages.

Characteristic features of English compounds.

Classification of compound words according to their structure.

Classification of compound words according to the joining element.

Classification of compound words according to the parts of speech.

Classification of compound words according to the semantic relations

between the components.

Ways of forming compound words.

Analyze the following compound words:

note-book speedometer son-in-law

to job-hop brain-gain video-corder

fair-haired forget-me-not Anglo-Russian

teach-in back-grounder biblio-klept

theatre-goer well-dressed bio-engineer

to book-hunt mini-term to baby-sit

blood-thirsty good-for-nothing throw-away

do-gooder skin-head kleptomania

sportsman para-trooper airbus

bus-napper cease-fire three-

cornered

tip-top brain-drain bread-and-

butter

Compare the strucure of the following words:

demagougery tablewards heliport

tobbacoless money-wise non-formal

booketeria go-go motel

counter-clockwise to frontpage productivity

giver-away newly-created nobody

Seminar 4.

Conversion.

Conversion as a way of wordbuilding.

Different points of view on the nature of conversion.

Semantic groups of verbs which can be converted from nouns.

The meanings of verbs converted from adjectives.

Semantic groups of nouns which can be converted from verbs.

Substantivised adjectives.

Characteristic features of combinations of the type «stone wall».

Semantic groups of combinations of this type.

Analyze the following lexical units:

to eye a find to

slim

a grown-up to airmail steel helmet

London season resit sleep

a flirt a read

handout

to weekend a build-up supersonics

a non-formal to wireless to submarine

to blue-pencil to blind - the blind - blinds

distrust a jerk to

radio

news have-nots the

English

to co-author to water to winter

a sit-down mother-in-law morning star

undesirables a walk a find

dislike log cabin finals

Seminar 5.

Shortenings and abbreviations.

Lexical and graphical abbreviations,the main differences between them.

Types of graphical abbreviations.

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