representatives of both parties to support administration policies.

JUDICIAL POWERS

Among the president's constitutional powers is that of appointing important

public officials; presidential nomination of federal judges, including

members of the Supreme Court, is subject to confirmation by the Senate.

Another significant power is that of granting a full or conditional pardon

to anyone convicted of breaking a federal law—except in a case of

impeachment. The pardoning power has come to embrace the power to shorten

prison terms and reduce fines.

EXECUTIVE POWERS

Within the executive branch itself, the president has broad powers to

manage national affairs and the workings of the federal government. The

president can issue rules, regulations and instructions called executive

orders, which have the binding force of law upon federal agencies. As

commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the United States, the president

may also call into federal service the state units of the National Guard.

In times of war or national emergency, the Congress may grant the president

even broader powers to manage the national economy and protect the security

of the United States.

The president chooses the heads of all executive departments and

agencies, together with hundreds of other high-ranking federal officials.

The large majority of federal workers, however, are selected through the

Civil Service system, in which appointment and promotion are based on

ability and experience

POWERS IN FOREIGN AFFAIRS

Under the Constitution, the president is the federal official primarily

responsible for the relations of the United States with foreign nations.

Presidents appoint ambassadors, ministers and consuls—subject to

confirmation by the Senate—and receive foreign ambassadors and other public

officials. With the secretary of state, the president manages all official

contacts with foreign governments. On occasion, the president may

personally participate in summit conferences where chiefs of state meet for

direct consultation. Thus, President Woodrow Wilson headed the American

delegation to the Paris conference

at the end of World War I; President Franklin D. Roosevelt conferred with

Allied leaders at sea, in Africa and in Asia during World War II; and every

president since Roosevelt has met with world statesmen to discuss economic

and political issues, and to reach bilateral and multilateral agreements.

Through the Department of State, the president is responsible for the

protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United

States. Presidents decide whether to recognize new nations and new

governments, and negotiate treaties with other nations, which are binding

on the United States when approved by two-thirds of the Senate. The

president may also negotiate "executive agreements" with foreign powers

that are not subject to Senate confirmation.

CONSTRAINTS ON PRESIDENTIAL POWER

Because of the vast array of presidential roles and responsibilities,

coupled with a conspicuous presence on the national and international

scene, political analysts have tended to place great emphasis on the

president's powers. Some have even spoken of the "the imperial presidency,"

referring to the expanded role of the office that Franklin D. Roosevelt

maintained during his term.

One of the first sobering realities a new president discovers is an

inherited bureaucratic structure which is difficult to manage and slow to

change direction. Power to appoint ex- ' tends only to some 3,000 people

out of a civilian government ' work force of more than three million, most

of whom are protected in their jobs by Civil Service regulations.

The president finds that the machinery of government operates pretty

much independently of presidential interventions, has done so through

earlier administrations, and will continue to do so in the future. New

presidents are immediately confronted with a backlog of decisions from the

outgoing administration on issues that are often complex and unfamiliar.

They inherit a budget formulated and enacted into law long before they came

to office, as well as major spending programs (such as veterans' benefits.

Social Security payments and Medicare for the elderly), which are mandated

by law and not subject to influence. In foreign affairs, presidents must

conform with treaties and informal agreements negotiated by their

predecessors.

The happy euphoria of the post-election "honeymoon" quickly dissipates,

and the new president discovers that Congress has become less cooperative

and the media more critical. The president is forced to build at least

temporary alliances among diverse, often antagonistic interests—economic,

geographic, ethnic and ideological. Compromises with Congress must be

struck if any legislation is to be adopted. "It is very easy to defeat a

bill in Congress," lamented President John F. Kennedy. "It is much more

difficult to pass one."

Despite these burdensome constraints, few presidents have turned down

the chance to run for a second term of office. Every president achieves at

least some of his legislative goals and prevents by veto the enactment of

other laws he believes not to be in the nation's best interests. The

president's authority in the conduct of war and peace, including the

negotiation of treaties, is substantial. Moreover, the president can use

his unique position to articulate ideas and advocate policies, which then

have a better chance of entering the public consciousness than those held

by his political rivals. When a president raises an issue, it inevitably

becomes subject to public debate. A president's power and influence may be

limited, but they are also greater than those of any other American, in or

out of office.

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

The day-to-day enforcement and administration of federal laws is in the

hands of the various executive departments, created by Congress to deal

with specific areas of national and international affairs. The heads of the

departments, chosen by the president and approved by the Senate, form a

council of advisers generally known as the president's "Cabinet." In

addition to 14 departments, there are a number of staff organizations

grouped into the Executive Office of the President. These include the White

House staff, the National Security Council, the Office of Management and

Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, the Office of the U.S. Trade

Representative, and the Office of Science and Technology.

The Constitution makes no provision for a presidential Cabinet. It

does provide that the president may ask opinions, in writing, from the

principal officer in each of the executive departments on any subject in

their area of responsibility, but it does not name the departments nor

describe their duties. Similarly, there are no specific constitutional

qualifications for service in the Cabinet.

The Cabinet developed outside the Constitution as a matter of

practical necessity, for even in George Washington's day it was an absolute

impossibility for the president to discharge his duties without advice and

assistance. Cabinets are what any particular president makes them. Some

presidents have relied heavily on them for advice, others lightly, and some

few have largely ignored them. Whether or not Cabinet members act as

advisers, they retain the responsibility for directing the activities of

the government in specific areas of concern.

Each department has thousands of employees, with offices throughout the

country as well as in Washington. The departments are divided into

divisions, bureaus, offices and services, each with specific duties.

|THE CABINET |

|(All departments are headed by a secretary, except the Justice Department, |

|which is headed by the attorney general.) |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: |Created in 1862 |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE: |Created in 1903. The Department of |

| |Commerce and Labor split into two |

| |separate departments in 1913. |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE: |Amalgamated in 1947. The Department of |

| |Defense was established by combining, |

| |the Department of War (established in |

| |1789), the Department of the Navy |

| |(established in 1798) and the |

| |Department of the Air Force |

| |(established in 1947). Although the |

| |secretary of defense is a member of the|

| |Cabinet, the secretaries of the Army, |

| |Navy and Air Force are not. |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION: |Created in 1979. Formerly part of the |

| |Department of Health, Education and |

| |Welfare. |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY: |Created in 1977. |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN |Created in 1979, when the Department of|

|SERVICES: |Health, Education and Welfare (created |

| |in 1953) was split into separate |

| |entities. |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN|Created in 1965. |

|DEVELOPMENT: | |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR: |Created in 1849 |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE: |Created in 1870. Between 1789 and 1870,|

| |the attorney general was a member of |

| |the Cabinet, but not the head of a |

| |department. |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR: |Created in 1913 |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE: |Created in 1789. |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION: |Created in 1966. |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY: |Created in 1789 |

|THE DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS:|Created in 1988. Formerly the Veterans |

| |Administration, now elevated to Cabinet|

| |level |

DEPARTAMENT OF AGRICULTURE

The Department of Agriculture (USDA) supervises agricultural production to

ensure fair prices and stable markets for producers and consumers, works to

improve and maintain farm income, and helps to develop and expand markets

abroad for agricultural products. The department attempts to curb poverty,

hunger and malnutrition by issuing food stamps to the poor; sponsoring

educational programs on nutrition; and administering other food assistance

programs, primarily for children, expectant mothers and the elderly. It

maintains production capacity by helping landowners protect the soil,

water, forests and other natural resources. USDA administers rural

development, credit and conservation programs that are designed to

implement national growth policies, and conducts scientific and

technological research in all areas of agriculture. Through its inspection

and grading services, USDA ensures standards of quality in food offered for

sale. The department also promotes agricultural research by maintaining the

National Agricultural Library, the second largest government library in the

world. (The U.S. Library of Congress is first.) The USDA Foreign

Agricultural Service (FAS) serves as an export promotion and service agency

for U.S. agriculture, employing specialists abroad who make surveys of

foreign agriculture for U.S. farm and business interests. The U.S. Forest

Service, also part of the department, administers an extensive network of

national forests and wilderness areas.

DEPARTAMENT OF COMMERCE

The Department of Commerce serves to promote the nation's international

trade, economic growth and technological advancement. It offers assistance

and information to increase America's competitiveness in the world economy;

administers programs to prevent unfair foreign trade competition; and

provides social and economic statistics and analyses for business and

government planners. The department comprises a diverse array of agencies.

The National Bureau of Standards, for example, conducts scientific and

technical research, and maintains physical measurement systems for industry

and government. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),

which includes the National Weather Service, works to improve understanding

of the physical environment and oceanic resources. The Patent and Trademark

Office grants patents and registers trademarks. The department also

conducts research and develops policy on telecommunications; promotes

domestic economic development and foreign travel to the United States; and

assists in the growth of businesses owned and operated by minorities.

DEPARTAMENT OF DEFENCE

Headquartered in the Pentagon, the "world's largest office building," the

Department of Defense (DOD) is responsible for all matters relating to the

nation's military security. It provides the military forces of the United

States, which consist of about two million men and women on active duty.

They are backed, in case of emergency, by 2.5 million members of state

reserve components, known as the National Guard. In addition, about one

million civilian employees serve in the Defense Department in such areas as

research, intelligence communications, mapping and international security

affairs. The National Security Agency (NSA) also comes under the direction

of the secretary of defense. The department directs the separately

organized military departments of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air

Force, as well as each service academy and the National War College, the

Joint Chiefs of Staff and several specialized combat commands. DOD

maintains forces overseas to meet treaty commitments, to protect the

nation's outlying territories and commerce, and to provide air combat and

support forces. Nonmilitary responsibilities include flood control,

development of oceanographic resources and management of oil reserves.

DEPARTAMENT OF EDUCATION

The Department of Education absorbed most of the education programs

previously conducted by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, as

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