• Confirm that the message is understood-this la essential because words

become garbled very easily. "Offer them 15 per cent discount" can easily

become "offer them 50 per cent discount".

33

• Listen carefully to the recipient's comments-ask for them to be repeated

if you haven't wholly understood them.

• Close cheerfully-however miserable you say feel your instructions are

more likely to be implemented it you are cheerful and encouraging...

Written communication

Communication in writing should have the advantage of clarity since the

writer has the opportunity to marshal his facts, present the case and make

a clear recommendation. Also several people can be communicated with

simultaneously, particularly in this age of electronic mailboxes and the

fax machine.

In the context of man management, however, there are pitfalls which should

be avoided.

Instructions can often be given more clearly in writing then orally.

Remember that the recipient lacks the opportunity to question the manager

directly and it is very easy for a feeling of authoritarianism to creep in,

"Give me an analysis of the Sales figures for May, broken down by product

and customer type," may be unequivocal, but it can sound like a military

order and the employee receiving the memorandum might be forgiven for

assuming a crispness that was unintended. Small organisations use fewer

internal memoranda to give instructions than large companies, and everyone

probably benefits from the smaller amount of paperwork and the greater

informality involved. It instructions are given at a meeting, it is always

good practice to confirm the main points in writing afterwards, whatever

the size of the organisation. Personnel Issues are also better dealt with

orally with subsequent accurate confirmation in writing. Pay rises,

promotions, changes in job specifications and the like, should not be

communicated initially in writing, however good the news for the employee.

Face-to-face meetings reinforce the relationship with the employee and

should always be used.

Disciplinary matters are sometimes dealt with in writings because the

manager is reluctant to confront the employee. This practice is always

wrong and will breed misunderstanding and resentment. It is even worse when

the memorandum is copied to others not directly concerned with the

employee's welfare. If, for example, someone another part of the

organisation, complains about an employee's efficiency or behaviour it is

tempting for the manager to kill two birds with one stone. A memo of

apology copied to the employee may placate the complainant, but will,

almost certainly infuriate the employee. If the manager needs to respond to

the complaint in writing he must see the employee first and ideally show

him the draft memorandum before sending if off. Notice boards offer a

valuable means of keeping a team up to date will relevant personnel

developments. The language used should, however, always be chosen with

care. For example, a notice which simply says, "Joe Smith is leaving us

after for years service," is doubtless factually correct, but offers

endless scope for different interpretations. Did he fall or was he pushed?

Are they glad to see the back of him or is he grieved over? The addition of

the world "valuable" before "service" and phrase "and we wish him well in

his future career" could resolve all doubt. Copies of memos and letters

should only be sent to those who have a relevant interest in the matter in

hand. Sending a copy of a memo to recipient's superior "for information" is

usually flagrant politicking and should be discouraged. Ease of copy-making

unfortunately encouraging widening the audience for memos well beyond the

bounds of common sense. Since recipients often feel honour bound to keep

the copies they receive, the real cost to the organisation can be enormous.

Letters written to employee should always conform to the style normally

used by his manager. Thus if the employee is "John" to him letters

addressing him as "Dear Mr. Smith", "Dear Smith", or "Dear Sir" should

always be avoided. It is part of the good manager's task to make sure that

all of the good manager's task to make sure that all communications with

employee reinforce the organisations normal style, whether formal or

informal...

Getting the beat out of communication. The key component in all

communication is the trust and understanding which is built up through face-

to face conversations. Telephone conversations are necessary but less

effective, and written communications have many pitfalls for the unwary.

The manager needs to use all three forms which skills which may not come

naturally to him. Training in interviewing. Charring meetings, effective

speaking and effective writing is readily available.; Even in the smallest

organisations an investment in this branch of training is always soundly

made.

BODY LANGUAGE

Imagine yourself in a sales meeting with a client. As the client tells you

how pleased she is with your products and how she plans to recommend an

even larger purchase this year than last ,you sense that something is

wrong. Her voice is high-pitched and rapid and her eyes over yours focusing

instead on the ballpoint pen she is nervously checking on the desk. About a

week after the meeting, she sends you a note, telling you that the entire

deal is off. You are disappointed but not surprised for you had understood

the non-verbal messages she was sending at the meeting.

According to Albert Mehrabian a leading authority on non-verbal

communication, all our emotional messages are communicated without words.

We tell others what we really feel through our facial expressions, eye,

leg, hand, and torso movements. We also communicate through the pitch,

loudness, and cadence of our voice, the distance we maintain between

ourselves and others in conversation, our clothing, and more. Since non-

verbal communication can tell you what other people are saying without

their ever uttering a word, its importance in business communication is

obvious. Here are a few of the ways in which non-verbal messages can be

sent and used:

• Even in business meetings, the eyes can be the mirror of the soul. By

averting your gaze, you tell those around you that they are not getting

36

their message across or that something negative is going on. If you choose

instead to stare directly at a meeting participant, you will probably make

the person extremely anxious. If you are in the midst of an argument the

harder you stare the menacing you seem.

• Gestures which include the position and movement of the hands, feet,

arms, legs, torso, and shoulders, communicate a variety of non-verbal

messages. A handshake, for example, often expresses a persons real

feelings. A limp handshake is a sign of reserve and lack of enthusiasm

while a strong, powerful grip communicate confidence.

• In a disagreement, you may find your boby turned away from the person

with whom you are arguing. If, on the other hand, you are on good terms

with your business associate, you are more likely to directly face the

person. Insecurity is communicated through the position of the arms and

legs. If in a meeting you discover that your limbs are wrapped around you,

try to analyse why you are nervous.

• As you speak, keep in mind that the pitch, tone, loudness and rate of

your voice communicate as much and sometimes more than your words, Rapid

speech, for example, may signal excitement or nervousness while hesitant

speech may indicate insecurity or doubt.

• The way you dress delivers an unmistakable message to those around you.

If you choose to wear jeans to a sales call on a conservative client, your

chances of making the Bale are small.

Don't fall into the trap of believing that an understanding of non-verbal

communication will enable you to read every potertial buyer like a book.

Our speechless messages are extremely compile, varying with the situation

and culture we find ourselves in and with particular personalities and

habits. However, a working knowledge of the nuances of body language wiil

still provide you with an invaluable business tool.

TIME MANAGEMENT

A.

It's Monday morning and Jim Anderson, a financial manager, is already

behind schedule. With three phone calls waiting for him, a budget meeting

at 10,a lunch date with a supplier, and an analysis of last quarter's due

at 2. Jim is frantic. He doesn't know what to do first and worse yet, he

knows that he'll never meet all his deadlines.

Jim is suffering from a common problem plaguing manager-an inability to

control and effectively manage time. This problem which affects college

students as well, can be minimised by following simple suggestions;

• Establish your goals and set priorities. Make a list of your long-and

short-term projects. Look at the list regularly and revise at as needed.

Arrange the list into specific tasks. Then on start at the top of the list

and get to work.(Don't upset it your priorities change by the hour. Just

revise your list and get on with the work. Schedule your daily activities

on an hour-by hour appointment calendar.

• Learn to delicate work. Then follow this procedure to make sure you get

the result you want. Give clear instructions on what you want done, make

sure your instructions are understood, set a deadline, regularly check on

the projects progress, and allow enough time to correct mistakes.

• Spend your time on those activities that will yield the moat results. The

PARETO PRINCIPLE of time management states that 80%, of your goals can be

achieved in 20% of your time if your work on those tasks that are critical

to the completion of the overall project and avoid those contribute little

to the outcome.

• Do your most important when you are at your best. Work on high-priority

items when you are mentally alert and on low-priority items when your

energy has ebbed.

• Group your activities. By reading all your mail and making all your phone

calls at once, you will make the most efficient use of your time.

• Learn how to held interruptions. Incoming phone calls, unscheduled

visitors, and even the mail can play havoc with your schedule. You can

control these by having your sectectary handle all but essential calls when

you are working on an important task by working in another office (no one

will be able to find you), by setting times when they cannot (except for

emergencies), and by learning how to deal with long-winded callers.

Interrupting yourself also wastes time. Instead of getting yet another

cup of coffee or walking down the hall to chat with a friend, try to

finish what you're doing, even if the job is difficult or unpleasant.

• Avoid the paper shuffle. Try to handle every piece of paper on your desk

only once.

• Avoid long lunches when you are in a time crunch.

• Finally, give yourself the time you need to get the Job done. Time

management is not the sane thing as time compression. Be realistic about

the amount of working time you need to get an important job done and then

schedule the rest of your day around it. By using these and other time

management techniques, you will begin to fed in control of your schedule.

The inevitable result will be greater productivity.

41

DEVELOPMENT OF THE U.S. ECONOMY

I.I. The United States has a fascinating business, history. Business has

significantly influenced customs, politics and even family living. The

historical development of the U.S. economy continues to effect the way of

business operates today. Colonial Society. Colonial society was primary

agricultural-built

on the products of its farms and plantations. The nations prosperity

depended on the success of its crops, and most people lived in rural areas.

The cities-quite small in comparison to those of Europe- were the

marketplaces and residences craft workers, traders, bankers and government

officials.

2. But the real economics and political power of the nation was centered in

rural areas. The population was tied to the land socially as well as well

as economically. The colonies looked to England for manufactured products

and capital with to finance infant industries.

3. Even after the Revolutionary war (1776-1783), the United States

maintained close economic relations with England. Indeed, British investors

provided much to the money needed to finance the developing business

system. This financial influence remained well into 19* century.

II. 4. The Industrial Revolution. The industrial revolution occurred in

England around 1750. The traditional manufactured system of independed

skilled workers individually pursuing their specialities was replaced by a

factory system that mass-produced items by bringing together large numbers

of semiskilled workers.

5. The factory system profited from savings that were created by large-

scale production. For example, row materials could often be purchased

cheaper in large lots. Another savings came from the specialisation of

labour; each worker concentrated on one specific task. Production

efficiency improved substantially and the factory system revolutionised

business.

6. Influenced by the events occurring in England, the United States soon

began its march toward industrialisation. Agriculture became mechanised and

factories sprang up everywhere. But most business historians agree that

real progress did not occur until railroads provided a fast, economical

method of transporting the goods produced by business.

7. The American Industrial Revolution was highlighted by the rapid

construction of railroad systems during the 1840s and 1550s. Not only did

the railroad provided the necessary transportation system, the also created

the need for greater quantities of lumber, still, and real estate.

III. 8. The age of the entrepreneur. During the 19th century business made

sizeable advises in the U.S. Eli Whitney introduced the concept of

interchangeable parts, an idea that would later facilitate mass production.

Peddlers, the sales people of the day, operated throughout the country.

Financiers became less depended upon England, and the banking system better

established after some early problems. Investors created a virtually

endless array of commercially usable products.

9. People were encouraged to take risks and to become entrepreneurs.

Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D. Rockfeller, J.P. Morgan, and Andrew Carnegie

-all became wealthy because of their willingness to take business risks

during this period. Admittedly, some people were hurt by the speculation

that characterised industry during the 1800s but, on balance, the

entrepreneurial spirit of the age did much to advance the business system

and raise the standard of living.

IV. 10. PRODUCTION ERA. The early part of the 20th century - the

production. era - was a period when business managers concentrated almost

solely on the firm's production tasks. Industry was under considerable

pressure to produce more and more to satisfy growing consumer demand and to

correct product shortages.

Work assignments became increasingly specialised. Assembly lines, such as

the one introduced by Henry Ford, became common. Owners turned over

management responsibilities to a new class of managers, who specialised in

operating established businesses rather than in starting new ones.

Marketing tended to be viewed strictly as selling. Business did not yet

accept disiplines like consumer research. In other words, marketers were

those individuals responsible for distribution after the production

function had been performed. Business was internally oriented rather that

consumer oriented.

V.ll. THE MARKETING CONCEPT. The post-World War II era was influenced by an

important new concept in management. The marketing concept, which became

the prevalent business philosophy, advocated that all activities and

functions of the organisation be directed toward the identification and

satisfaction of consumer wants. A consumer orientation became the principal

goal of companies.

12. Business organisations throughout United States formed marketing

research departments to analyze what the consumer would buy before the

company produced the item. This concept stood in marked contrast to the

earlier philosophy of producing a product then trying to sell it to the

consumer. Advertising reached over larger numbers of consumers and

increased the efficiency of firm's promotional affords. Today, firms must

have a strong consumer orientation if they are to remain competitive in the

marketplace.

VI. 13. THE CURRENT BUSINESS ERA. Challenge after Challenge has confronted

business in recent years. Well-known firms like Whickers and Continental

Airlines have filed for bankruptcy. Concern over high numbers of industrial

accidents and illnesses has resulted in the passage of federal legislation

regarding occupational safety and health. Financial scandals have touched

off public demand. Millions of people have been shocked by the ecological

reports of environmentalists. Higher fuel costs have made energy-saving

programs priority items at managerial meetings.

14. These challenges have produced several noticeable trembles in the

business world. Business has become more socially responsible; the social

impact of a business decisions making. Business has become more conscious

of its operating costs, particularly energy costs. More minorities and

women porsue business carriers today. Management continues to struggle with

the problem of predicting and then reacting to new government regulations

and requirements. Business has found new markets abroad - Some in Communist

nations - but has encountered increasing competition from foreign producers

at home writers may some day describe the current business era as one of

the most challenging for the private enterprise system.

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